The Gender Disparity (in progress)

Proportion of Animal Abusers who are Male
93%, 83/89 (Desnoyers 2009)--Rhode Island defendants charged with animal cruelty

References:

• Desnoyers RC (2009). What we can learn about animal cruelty cases from Rhode Island: research and perspective. Animal Law Newsletter, Spring.

See also:

• Gerbasi, K.C. (2004). Gender and nonhuman animal cruelty convictions: data from pet-abuse.com. Society and Animals, 12, 358-365.

How to Avoid Abusive Attitudes

While attention is often given to the connection between violence against animals and violence against people, the implication is that compassion towards animals with foster compassion towards people.

Costello and Hodson (2009) conducted a fascinating study of Canadian undergraduates that showed that

• People who saw humans and non-humans animals as fundamentally different were more likely to have negative/dehumanising attitudes towards immigrants, and
• that people provide with material emphasising the continuity between species became less prejudiced in their attitudes towards immigrants.

There seems to be an innate human tendency to justify dominance of one group over another, by reference to biological differences between the two somehow rendering differences in power and control "natural" (see: Harrawy, 1978). Thus, emphasising and being sensitive to essential similarities between groups and work against this influence.

However the situation may not be as simple as 'more empathy for animals=less violence to animals and people'.  Marten et al (2007) found that people people who felt they were more similar to bugs tended to kill fewer bugs in a self-paced experimental setting were they were encourage to put the insects into a killing apparatus.  But this group actually killed more bugs and enjoyed the killing more after being 'primed' by being instructed to make five kills.  Those who felt they were not similar to bugs made fewer voluntary kills under the same circumstances.  The authors suggest that perceived similarity reduces willingness to kill, but when one does kill it activates defense mechanisms to neutralise or even reverse the aversiveness of the killing activity.

Sources

• Costello K, Hodson G. (2009) Exploring the roots of dehumanisation: the role of animal-human similarity in promoting immigrant humanization. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 13, 3-22.
• Harraway, D. (1978). Animal sociology and a natural economy of the body politic, part 1: a political physiology of dominance. Signs, 4, 21-27(?).
• Martens A, Kosloff S, Greenberg J, Landau MJ, Schmader T. (2007). Killing begets killing: evidence from a bug-killing paradigm that initial killing fuels subsequent killing. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 33, 1251-1264.

Slaughter

The slaughter of animals for meat is a cause of considerable cultural anxiety.  Even people at complete peace with being carnivores tend not to want to see, or know about, the slaughter process.

By contrast there is a 'New Carnivore' movement where slaughter and butcher are presented as empowering and even spiritual activities (see Parry, 2010).

Most people experience an initial reluctance to kill animals, however  this resistance may be rapidly broken down when a person first kills an animal under the instructions of another (Martens et al, 2007; Martens, Kosloff, Jackson, 2010).

• Martens A, Kosloff S, Greenberg J, Landau MJ, Schmader T. (2007). Killing begets killing: evidence from a bug-killing paradigm that initial killing fuels subsequent killing. Pers Soc Psychol Bull, 33, 1251-1264.
• Martens, A., Kosloff, S, Jackson, LE. (2010). Evidence that initial obedient killing fuels subsequent volitional killing beyond the effects of practice. Social Psychology and Personality Science, 1, 268-273.
• Parry, J. (2010) Gender and slaughter in popular gastronomy. Feminism and Psychology, 20, 381-396.

Animal Abuse Incidence: Males

Incidence of Reported Prior Animal Abuse in Groups of Males Only

Identified as Violent AB TOT PER
Ascione, 1998 Abussive spouse 20 28 71%
Simons et al, 2008 Rapists 94 138 68%
Kellert et al 1985 Held in three federal penitentiaries 60 107 56%
Merz-Perez et al 2004 violent offenders 25 45 56%
Carlisle Frank et al 2004 Abussive spouse ? ? 53%
Tingle et al 1986 Psychiatric admissions/rapists 10 21 48%
Burgess et al 1986 sexual homicide 17 36 47%
McIntosh, 2004 Abusive domestic partner 31 66 47%
Ressler 1988 Inmates convicts of sexual homicide 26 56 46%
Verlinden et al 2000 School shooters 5 11 45%
Simons et al, 2008 Child abusers 60 137 44%
Beaseley 2004 serial murderers 3 7 43%
Myers, Burgess & Nelson 1998 adolescent sexual homicide perpetrators 4 14 29%
Tingle et al 1986 Psychiatric admissions/child molesters 12 43 28%
Pagani et al 2007 9-18 year old youths 107 397 27%
Salter et al 2003 Sexual abuse victims who later abused 6 26 23%
Santtila et al, 1997 offenders 6 26 23%
Felthous 1979 Violent psychiatric patients/enlisted 17 74 23%
Beyer et al 2003 Child abduction homicide 5 25 20%
Wright et al, 2003 Serial murderers 75 354 21%
583 1611 36%

Normative/Control AB TOT PER
Kellert et al 1985 Adults 36 50 72%
Baldry 2003 9-17 year old students 344 734 47%
Baldry 2005 9-12 year old students 118 258 46%
Flynn 2002 Undergraduates 27 94 29%
Henry, 2004 Undergraduates 21 77 27%
Flynn 1999 Undergraduates 29 182 16%
Gray 2003 Undergraduates 6 50 12%
Felthous 1979 Non-violent psychiatric patients/enlisted 7 75 9%
Salter et al 2003 Sexual abuse victims 4 80 5%
Felthous 1979 Non-psychiatric patients/enlisted 1 26 4%
593 1626 36%

Identified as Generally Deviant
Henderson 2011 Inmates 103 180 57%
743 2219 33%

Cruelty to Animals: Definitions

"[S]ocially unacceptable behavior that intentionally causes unecessary pain, suffering, or distress to, and/or death of, an animal." (Ascione, 1993)

"[T]reatment of animals that causes gratuitous, unwarranted or unjustifiable suffering or harm (including death)." (Vaughn et al, 2009).

• Vaughn M.G, Fu Q, DeLisi M., Beaver K.M., Perron B.E., Terrell K, Howard M.O. (2009). Correlates of cruelty to animals in the United States: results from the National Epidemiologic survey on alchohol and related conditions. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 43, 1213-1218.

Hunting

Hunting
Clifton P. Flynn found that (2002) "at least for this sample, hunting related to harming animals in the wild and to property damage but not to other forms of animal abuse or violence against humans."  Carlisle-Frank et al (2004) also concluded "hunting appears unrelated to the abuse of a companion animal." (p. 4). 

As a result, hunting--as a culturally condonned activity--is often excluded from the definition of animal cruelty (Tallicet et al, 2005). Although non-"sporting" and illegal acts of hunting such as freeze-killing (night shooting with a shotgun; Green 2002) would not be excluded.

A rich mythology connects veneration of the wild and animals, with hunting and--in some cases--femininity (Singh, 2001).  However hunting is predominantly pursued by males rather than female in a ration of approximately 8 to 1 (Herzog, 2007).  

Hunting, up to the modern day, typically often involves a strong sense of being an integral part of the natural world rather than merely an exploiter of it (Franklin, 2001).

Hunting Bibliography:

• Carlisle-Frank, P., Frank, J.M., Nielsen, L. (2004). Selective battering of the family pet. Anthrozoos 17, 26-41.
• Flynn, C.P. (2002). Hunting and illegal violence against humans and other animals: exploring the relationship. Society and Animals, 10, 137-154.
• Franklin, A. Neo-Darwinian leisures, the body and nature: hunting and angling in modernity. Body and Society, 7, 57-76.
• Green, G.S. (2002). The other criminalities of animal-freeze-killers: support for a generality of deviance. Society and Animals, 10, 5-30.
• Herzog, H.A. (2007). Gender differences in human-animal interactions: a review. Anthrozoos 20, 7-21.
• Singh, K.S. (2001). Gender roles in history: women as hunters. Gender, Technology and Development, 5, 113-124.

Animal Fighting (in progress)

Specific types of animal cruelty are seen as relating to particular types of interpesonal violence, for example the association of dog fighting with street gang activities (Randour, 2007).

• Randour, M.L. (2007). Creating synergy for gang prevention: taking a look at animal fighting and gangs. Proceedings of Persistently Safe Schools: The 2007 National Conference on Safe Schools, pp. 199-209 [full text]

Where to Draw the Line

It is widely accepted by the public that people who abuse animals and/or people may also be more widely dangerous to other animals and/or people. However what exactly constitutes cruelty or abuse? Milder forms or aggression and generally socially acceptable reasons for killing animals may have this insidious effect. However research has generally failed to find a connection between socially acceptable forms of aggression and killing, and socially unacceptable forms of violence and abuse.

For examples see:

• Hunting
• Slaugher

 "Smacking"
For example, New Zealand member of Parliament Sue Bradford is reported to have suggested that children who have been disciplined physically may be more likely to abuse animals. In defense of a Child Discipline bill that would remove a 'reasonable force' exemption and so ban even milder forms of physical discipline such as "smacking", Bradford stated that: "Where there are incidents of extreme cruelty to animals, usually the child is being beaten or badly treated themselves". Other prominent commentators disputed the connection such as radio personality Simon Barnett who responded "Eighty percent of new Zealanders believe it is okay to smack their kids, but to suggest they are going to go and pull the ears off bunnies and the wings off flies just doesn't stack up at all." (Espiner, 2007, pg 1).
"Smacking" Bibliography:

• Espiner, C. (2007). Smacking Trigger to animal abuse. The Press (New Zealand), April 20, 1.

Bestiality

Bestiality is a particularly difficult kind of animal abuse to discuss, it is rare and even more covert than abuse by way of neglect or violence. Generally bestiality is not studied in isolation but as an additional form of abuse in populations already distinguished by multiple forms of abusive and/or criminal behavior. As such it is normally found to be an aggravating factor associated with greater severity in offending.

Bestiality is relatively uncommon in the general population. Surveys of male medium security inmates found that approximately 6%  had engaged in sexual acts with animals  (Hensley et al 2006, Tallichet et al, 2005) However some surveys find a rate as high as 22% (Henderson et al 2011).  Oneal et al (2008) found a rate of 10% in a sample of male adolescents with sexual behavior disorders.  Bestiality appears to be more common amongst men than women (Herzog, 2007)

The practice of bestiality most often reflects availability rather than preference.  It is associated with rural locations and lower levels of education, which may explain why it is apparently in decline. 

More rarely, persons may be preferentially zoophillic being sexually and/or romantically attracted to animals rather than people (Earls, Lalumiere, 2002).

Under the old testaments bestiality was admonished to the degree that it undermined the perceived natural order and categories (Burnside, 2006).  As such bestiality by a woman (a woman taking the initiative) was more severely punished than bestiality by a man--although in both cases the offending parties were meant to be put to death (Burnside, 2006): "And if a man lie with a beast, he shall surely be put to death: and ye shall slay the beast" (King James, other versions here). Historically it was thought that bestiality or even an intense preoccupation with animals could cause a woman to give birth to a deformed child (Sharpe, 2009). 

However increasingly bestiality is seen as a serious crime only to the extent that it is cruel to animals (McGraw, Warren).  It remains high condemned, for example one survey in Texas found that 97.4% of people thought that engaging in sexual activity with an animal should be punished.

Bestiality Bibliography:

• Burnside, J.P. (2006) Strange flesh: sex, semiotics and the construction of deviancy in Biblical law. Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, 30, 387-420.
• Earls, C.M., Lalumiere, M.L. (2006). A case study of preferential bestiality (zoophilia). Sexual Abuse: a Journal of Research and Treatment, 14, 83-88.
• Henderson, B.B., Hensley, C., Tallichet, S.E. (2011). Childhood animal cruelty methods and their link to adult interpersonal violence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 26, 2211-2227.
• Hensley, C., Tallichet, S.E., Dutkiewics, E.L. (2010). Childhood bestiality a potential precursor to adult interpersonal violence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 25, 557-567.
• Hensley, C., Tallichet, S.E., Singer, S.D. (2006). Exploring the possible link between childhood and adolescent bestiality and interpersonal violence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 21, 910-923.
• Herzog, H.A. (2007). Gender differences in human-animal interactions: a review. Anthrozoos 20, 7-21.
• Oneal, B.J., Burns, G.L., Kahn, T.J., Rich, P., Worling, J.R. (2008). Initial psychometric properties of a treatment planning and progress inventory for adolescents who sexually abuse. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, 20, 161-187.
• Sharpe, A.N. (2009). England's legal monsters. Law, Culture and the Humanities, 5, 100-130.
• Vollum, S., Buffington-Volum, J., Longmire, D.R. (2004). Moral disengagement and attitudes about violence towards animals. Society and Animals, 12, 209-235.
• Warren, A.P., Warren, C. (2010). Benign violations: making immoral behavior funny. Psychological Science, 21, 1141-1149.

About Kin and Kind

What is this blog about?
This blog is the 'home base' for the bibliography I am assembling. I am collecting research and commentaries of various kinds on the subject of "The Link". That is, the connections between abuse of animals and interpersonal violence (e.g. domestic abuse, assault, murder).

Who are You?
Emily Patterson-Kane, an animal welfare scientist.

Why are you doing this?
I started researching this topic after attending the Strategizing the Link meeting in June 8 - 9, 2008. I wrote a paper with Heather Piper entitled Animal Abuse as a Sentinel for Human Violence: A Critique which was published in the Journal of Social Issues.

Where does the blog name come from?
The reference is to a line from Hamlet "A little more than kin, and less than kind." In the play Hamlet is describing his conflicted relationship with Claudius who is more than just family being a mentor, friend and uncle--but also causing great pain by marrying Hamlet's mother shortly after his father died. I think there is a parallel to our relationship with animals as both our closest and most faithful friends, but also frequently mis-used, abused and discarded property.

A close second choice would be "Much Cherishing".

Romeo: I would I were thy bird.
Juliet: Sweet, so would I, Yet I should kill thee with much cherishing.

Animal Abuse Incidence

Data for all-male groups here

 

Incidence of Reported Prior Animal Abuse in Groups of Females Only

Identified as Violent or Abusive towards Humans

• 36%, 11/31, Inmates, Felthous & Yudowitz 1977

Incidence of Reported Prior Animal Abuse in Mixed Groups of Males and Females

• 17%, 28/294, psychiatric outpatient children, Heath et al. 1984
• 5%, 10/192, substance abusing adolescents, Gordon et al. 2004.
• ~4%, estimated, slaughter house workers, Grandin 1988.
• 1.8%, Americans over the age if 18, Vaughn et al. 2009.

Incidence of Animal Abuse Reported by an Abused Spouse or Domestic Partner

• 57%, 16/28, women at a shelter, Ascione 1997.

Other Bibliographies

• Phil Arkow--Bibliography of the Link Between Animal Abuse, Child Abuse and Domestic Violence
• American Humane--Bibliography: The Link Between Child Abuse and Animal Cruelty
• The Humane Link--Articles and Journals
• Latham Letter back issues containing Link articles

The Link: Definitions

"The is a link between animal cruelty and family violence" [The Linkage Project]

"A correlation between animal abuse, family violence and other forms of community violence has been ... abuse of both children and animals is connected in a self-perpetuating cycle of violence. When animals in a home are abused or neglected, it is a warning sign that others in the household may not be safe. In addition, children who witness animal abuse are at a greater risk of becoming abusers themselves." [American Humane]

"The “Link” is the phrase used to identify the connection between animal abuse and violence towards people such as partner, elder and child abuse." [The Humane LINK]